Cells
1. Use specific examples to illustrate how cells vary in size.
Nerve cells have long, threadlike extensions to transmit impulses. Epithelial cells are smaller and flattened for gas exchange. Muscle cells are slender and rod-like.
2. Describe how the shapes of nerve, epithelial, and muscle cells are well suited to their functions.
Nerve cells are long with threadlike extensions that can be used to transmit motor or sensory information.
Muscle cells are slender and rod-like which contract to move parts of the body. Epithelial cells, specifically simple squamous, are thin and flattened for gas exchange.
3. Name the major components of a cell, and describe how they interact.
The two major components are the nucleus and the cytoplasm. The nucleus is the innermost part and controls the overall activities of a cell. The cytoplasm is a mass of fluid that surrounds the nucleus and is enclosed by the cell membrane. It holds the organelles.
4. Discuss the structure and functions of a cell membrane.
The basic structure of the cell membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer. It contains embedded protein molecules. It functions to keep the inner portion of the cell intact. It controls the entrance and exit of substances.
5. How do cilia, flagella, and cell adhesion molecules move cells?
Cilia, small hair like projections that occur in groups, move together in a uniform, wavelike motion. This is used to propel substances along to a certain destination. An example is the uterine tube where the cilia move the egg from the ovary to the uterus.
Flagella, which occur singularly, have a whip-like motion to propel the object forward. An example is the sperm cell moving up the vagina toward the cervix.
Cell adhesion molecules (CAMS) occur on the cell membrane. The resulting interactions can slow the cell and allow it to move in certain ways. See Figure 3.9, page 69.
6. Distinguish between organelles and inclusions.
An organelle is a structure within the cytoplasm that has a specific function. Inclusions are masses of lifeless chemicals such as pigments or glycogen.
7. Define selectively permeable.
Selectively permeable means that the cell membrane allows some substances to pass through easily while excluding other substances.
8. Describe the chemical structure of a membrane.
The basic framework consists of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins throughout.
9. Explain how the structure of a cell membrane determines which types of substances it is permeable to.
As the cell membrane is comprised chiefly of fatty acid portions of the phospholipid molecule, it allows
substances that are soluble in lipids to pass through easily. It is impermeable to water soluble molecules.
10. Explain the function of membrane proteins.
The functions of membrane proteins include acting as a receptor to combine with a specific substance such as a hormone, while some form narrow passageways, or channels, through which various molecules and ions can cross the cell membrane. Others function as enzymes in signal transduction.
11. Describe three kinds of intercellular junctions.
These include:
Tight junctions –The membranes of adjacent cells converge and fuse. The area of fusion surrounds the cell like a belt. This then closes the junction between cells. These are the types of junction found in the lining of the digestive tract.
Desmosome –This is where rivets or “spot welds” are placed between adjacent skin cells.
Gap junctions –This is where tubular channels interconnect the membranes of certain cells.
12. Describe the structures and functions of each of the following:
a. endoplasmic reticulum—It is composed of membrane-bound flattened sacs and elongated canals. These
are interconnected and communicate with the cell membrane, nuclear envelope, and certain cytoplasmic organelles. Two types of endoplasmic reticulum are found. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum lacks ribosomes embedded into the membrane. These are found in rough endoplasmic reticulum. It functions as a tubular communication system. It also functions in the production of proteins.
b. ribosome—These are composed of protein and RNA molecules. These function in the synthesis of proteins.
c. Golgi apparatus—Located near the nucleus, it consists of a stack of about six flattened membranous sacs whose membranes are continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum. This functions to refine and “package” the proteins synthesized by the ribosomes associated with the endoplasmic reticulum.
d. mitochondrion—These are elongated, fluid-filled sacs. The membrane surrounding a mitochondrion has an inner and outer layer. The inner layer is folded extensively to form partitions called cristae. In the cristae are enzymes that control some of the chemical reactions by which energy is released from glucose and other organic molecules. The cristae function in transforming this energy into a chemical form that is usable by various cell parts.
e. lysosome—These appear as tiny, membranous sacs that contain powerful enzymes that are capable of breaking down molecules of nutrient or foreign particles that enter cells. These also function in the destruction of worn cellular parts.
f. peroxisome—These are membranous sacs resembling lysosomes in size and shape. They contain enzymes, called peroxidases, which catalyze metabolic reactions that release hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as a byproduct. These also contain catalase, which is an enzyme that decomposes hydrogen peroxide, that that is toxic to cells.
g. cilium—These contain microtubules arranged in distinct cylindrical patterns. Cilia occur in large numbers on the free surface of some epithelial cells. Each is a tiny hair-like structure about 10 microns long. These are arranged in precise patterns and have coordinated wavelike movement.
h. flagellum—There is usually one to a cell. It is longer than a cilium but is structurally put together the same way. This has an undulating, whip like motion. The flagellum is generally used for movement.
i. centrosome—Located in the cytoplasm near the Golgi apparatus and nucleus, these are nonmembranous
and consist of two hollow cylinders called centrioles. These function in reproduction by aiding in the
distribution of chromosomes to the newly forming cells.
j. vesicle—These are membranous sacs formed by an action of the cell membrane in which a portion of the
membrane folds inward and pinches off. These play a role in phagocytosis and pinocytosis.
k. microfilament—Microfilaments are tiny rods of the protein actin arranged in meshworks or bundles. They cause various kinds of cellular movements.
l. microtubule—Microtubules are long slender tubes with diameters two or three times greater than a microfilament. These are composed of the globular protein tubulin. These are usually somewhat rigid,
forming the cytoskeleton, which helps maintain the shape of the cell.
13. Describe the structure of the nucleus and the functions of its contents.
The nucleus is a cellular organelle that is usually located near the center of the cell. It is a relatively large,
spherical structure enclosed in a double bilayered nuclear envelope, consisting of inner and outer membranes.
This allows various substances to move between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. The nucleolus is a small,
dense body composed largely of RNA and protein. It assists in the production of ribosomes. Chromatin
consists of loosely coiled fibers composed of DNA molecules and protein that contain information for
synthesizing proteins that promote cellular life processes. These become chromosomes during cell divisions.
14. Distinguish between diffusion and facilitated diffusion.
Diffusion is the process by which molecules or ions become scattered or are spread spontaneously from
regions where they are in higher concentrations toward regions where they are in lower concentrations.
Diffusion is a passive process that occurs naturally. Facilitated diffusion occurs when a substance that is not normally soluble in lipids combines with a receptor protein carrier molecule. This union forms a compound that is soluble in lipids and diffuses to the other side of the membrane. This receptor then releases the substance allowing for reuse of the carrier molecule.
15. Name three factors that increase the rate of diffusion.
These include: a short distance over which the diffusion will occur, a large concentration of the molecules, and an increase in temperature of the diffusing substances.
16. Explain how diffusion aids in gas exchange within the body.
Diffusion allows the oxygen molecules that are in high concentrations on one side of the capillary wall to move to areas of lower concentration. At the same time, the carbon dioxide molecules that are in high concentrations are moving to areas of lower concentration.
17. Define osmosis.
Osmosis is a special type of diffusion involving water. This is when water molecules diffuse from a region of higher water concentration to a region of lower water concentration.
18. Define osmotic pressure.
The ability of osmosis to generate enough pressure to lift a volume of water is called osmotic pressure.
19. Explain how the number of solute particles in a solution affects its osmotic pressure.
When the number of solute particles is great, the water concentration will be lowered while the osmotic
pressure will be greater. Water will diffuse toward solutions with greater osmotic pressure.
20. Distinguish among solutions that are hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic.
Hypertonic refers to a solution that has a higher osmotic pressure than that of the cell. This causes the cell to shrink as water moves out of the cell. Hypotonic refers to a solution that has a lower osmotic pressure than that of the cell. This causes the cell to swell and possibly burst as water moves into it. Isotonic refers to a solution that has the same osmotic pressure as body fluids. This allows the cell size to remain unchanged as water or solutes are not being pulled in any specific direction.
21. Define filtration.
Filtration is the process by which molecules are forced through a membrane by pressure.
22. Explain how filtration moves substances through capillary walls.
Blood pressure is the force that allows water and dissolved substances to move through the capillary walls, forming tissue fluid.
23. Explain why active transport is called a physiological process whereas diffusion is called a physical process.
A physiologic process is defined as a living process. It requires energy. A physical process is defined as a passive process. It requires no energy.
24. Explain the function of carrier molecules in active transport.
Carrier molecules are proteins that have binding sites that combine with the particles being transported. This union triggers the release of cellular energy, and this causes the shape of a carrier molecule to be altered. This allows the “passenger” molecule to move through the membrane.
25. Distinguish between pinocytosis and phagocytosis.
Pinocytosis is the process by which cells take in tiny droplets of liquid from their surroundings. The cell
membrane becomes indented and breaks down, integrating the water into the cytoplasm. Phagocytosis is the process by which solid material is taken inside the cell. The process is the same as pinocytosis, except that solid material is taken inside the cell.
26. Describe receptor-mediated endocytosis. How might it be used to deliver drugs across the blood-brain barrier?
Receptor-mediated endocytosis is where protein molecules extend through the cell membrane and are exposed on its outer surface. The proteins become binding sites for specific substances found in the interstitial fluid. These are then allowed to enter the cell. It would be useful in the blood-brain barrier if there were a specific receptor that could be triggered to allow substances, such as a drug, to cross the membrane.
27. Explain how transcytosis includes endocytosis and exocytosis.
Transcytosis is the selective and rapid transport of a substance or particle from one end of a cell to the other. It also enables substances to cross barriers formed by tightly connected cells.
28. List the phases in the cell life cycle. Why is interphase not a time of cellular rest?
The phases in the life cycle of a cell include mitosis, cytoplasmic division, (cytokinesis), interphase, and differentiation. Interphase is the stage in the life cycle of a cell where young cells grow, manufacture
compounds, new organelles are made and the chromosomes, and centrioles replicated.
29. Name the two processes included in cell reproduction.
The first is the process by which the nuclear portions of the cell divide (karyokinesis). The second process is where the cytoplasm divides (cytokinesis). These two processes together are called mitosis.
30. Describe the major events of mitosis.
Prophase is the first stage of mitosis where the chromosomes appear scattered throughout the nucleus. The
nuclear envelope dissolves and the sister chromatids are attached by the centromere. A spindle-shaped group of microtubules forms between the centrioles as they move apart.
Metaphase is the second stage of mitosis. The chromosomes move along the spindle fibers and align midway between the centrioles. Spindle fibers become attached to the centromere of the chromosomes.
Anaphase is where the centromere of the chromatids separate and the chromatids become individual chromosomes. These are pulled apart toward the opposite sides of the cell.
Telophase is the final stage of mitosis where the chromosomes complete their migration toward the centrioles.
It is much like prophase but with everything reversed. The nuclear envelope reforms and the chromosomes
become invisible.
31. Explain how the cytoplasm is divided during cellular reproduction.
The cytoplasm is pinched off beginning in anaphase and completes itself at the end of telophase. There may be more cytoplasm in one of the new daughter cells than in the other.
32. Explain what happens during interphase.
Interphase is the stage in the life cycle of a cell where young cells, grow, manufacture compounds, new
organelles are made, and the chromosomes and the centrioles replicate.
33. Define differentiation.
Differentiation is the process by which cells develop different characteristics in structure and function.
34. Explain how differentiation may reflect repression of DNA information.
Special proteins activate some genes and repress others. The way these are activated do not determine the type of cell that it will become.
35. How does loss of genetic control cause cancer?
In a healthy cell, oncogenes are not expressed and the tumor suppressor genes are expressed. As a result, cell reproduction is under control. Cancer begins in a single cell when an oncogene is turned on or a tumor
suppressor gene is turned off. If a mutation during chromosome division occurs, cancer could result.
36. Distinguish between a stem cell and a progenitor cell.
Stem cells divide mitotically to yield two stem cell daughters, or a stem cell and a progenitor cell, which may show the beginnings of differentiation.
Progenitor cells give rise to progenitors or more differentiated cells of a restricted lineage.
37. Distinguish between totipotent cell and pluripotent cell.
Totipotent means the cells can give rise to every cell type.
Pluripotent means that their daughter cells can follow any of several pathways, but not all of them.
38. Explain how differentiated cells can have the same genetic instructions but look and function very differently.
As cells specialize, they use some genes and ignore others.
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